Women Empowerment

Women empowerment is the need of the hour. Much talked words women empowerment refers to the upliftment of faire sex in the social structure, in   terms of position and also with regard to the respect and authority they hold.

Women empowerment means that women are empowered to think, dream and do whatever they aspire for and not dictated by society.

                   

Why women empowerment?

30-40% rural families are poor.

Women contribute 65-75% labour in agriculture.

Participate in major in major generating activities.

Major role in growing children.

Burdened by scarcity of basic needs- water, food, fuel and fodder.

Suffer from malnutrition ,ill health and neglect

Poor access to maternal and child care facilities.

Low rate of literacy.

Deprived of their rights and decision making powers.

Suppressed by male dominating society.

Women empowerment is required because only 1% of world’s assets are in the name of women.70% of people in abject poverty living less than $1 per day are women. Among the developed countries women’s participation in managerial and administrative posts is around 33%, 15% in Africa and 13% in Asia & Pacific In Silicon Valley for every 100 shares of stock options owned by man, only one share is owned by a woman.

Women’s status from Vedic Period to Modern India-

The status of women has been continuously changing from ancient to modern period. The status of women in ancient period was vital. They were empowered and used to take decisions in family matters and they were allowed even to choose their life- partners through organizing Swyamvaras. The women were educated and considered superior to men They used to perform yajnas and take parts in wars. In Vedic period the influence of powerful women like Gargi, Maitreyee, Sita, Kaikeyee, Draupadi etc. are well known. But the position of women in Indian society deteriorated with the arrival of Muslim rulers. They brought purdah –system.  Women were not given liberty to get education and come out of their houses

Many ill-practices were there like polygamy practices among rulers, Jauhar system in Rajputs, Devdasi system in south temples. All these practices made women’s situation in the society very pathetic Although Bhakti sects within Hinduism tried to bring social justice and equality between men and women. In spite of poor condition of women in medieval period Razia Sultan became the ruler and Mirabai became an important figure.

Although in British period some steps were taken and some schools for girls were open by Peary Charan Sarkar a member of YOUNG Bengal in 1847. Martha Mult and her daughter   Eliza  pioneerd the education and training of girls in South India. Raja Ram Mohan Roy’s efforts led to abolition of Sati practices in 1829 and Ishwar Chandra  Vidyasagar led to Widow Remarriage act in 1856. The contribution of Rani Lakshmi Bai can never be forgotten. In 1917 the first Women Delegation met the Secretary of the State and demanded Women’s   political rights. Child Marriage Restraint Act was passed in 1929 through the efforts of Mohammed Ali Jinnah. Women played important role in freedom struggle. Some important women who participated in freedom struggle were   Aruna Asaf Ali, Sucheta  Kripalaini, Kasturba Gandhi, Sarojini Naidu etc.

Women in modern India are excelling in all fields. They were holding the key posts of the country like the President of India, Prime Minister, Lok Sabha   Speaker, IAS, IPS, Pilots, Corporate Chairpersons, sports persons ,media person ,scientists thereby covering the half sky. They are performing extraordinarily in each and every field from home maker to country maker.

Present situation-

But still majority of women are culprits of gender inequality which Is a result of pre-existing gendered social norms.  It checks women from participating in social , political and economic activities thereby hampering the overall growth of the society. It is clearly shown in employment, health, education, nutrition.

Gender inequality in health is very clear from the mortality rate of mothers and girl child. Many Government programme National Rural Health Mission which aims at providing clear drinking water, sanitation, hygiene and nutrition lagging behind their goals. Women are not properly cared in rural areas   from their birth to old age which results in lower sex- ratio. Maternity deaths occur mostly due to   lack of proper care and transportation facilities, lack of trained healthcare personnel. According to   UNICEF Report the main causes of maternal deaths are-

1. Haemmorrhage - 30%

2. Anaemia              - 19%

3. Sepsis                  -16%

4. Obstructed labour  - 10%

5. Abortion              - 8%

Although the principle of gender equality is enshrined in the Preamble of Indian  Constitution The Constitution not only grants equality to women but also empowers States to adopt measures of positive discrimination in favour of women. From Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-78) onwards has been a marked shift in the approach to women’s issues from welfare to development

 In recent years the empowerment of women has been recognized as central issue. The National Commission for Women was setup by an Act of Parliament in 1990 to safeguard the rights and legal entitlements of women. The 73^rd and 74^th Amendments (1993) of The Constitution of India have provided for reservation of seats in the local bodies of Panchayats and Municipalities for woman, laying a strong foundation for their participation in decision making at the local levels.

Due to concerned efforts of the government much improvement has been seen in the status of women .Representation of women as increased in political arena, economic sphere and social life. Women achievers in various fields are-

M.S.Subbulakshmi, Gangubai  Hangal, Lata Mangeshkar, Asha Bhosle and  many more in music

B.Prabha, Amrita Shergil in painting, PT.Usha, Malleshwari, Mary Kom ,Sania Mirza, Saina Nehwal and others in sports . Mahadevi Verma, Subhadra Kumari Chauhan,Shivani, Amrita Pritam etc in Hindi literature, Arundhati  Roy, Anita Desai, Jhuma Lahiri in English literature, Sudha Murthy,  Arundhati Bhattacharya ,Chanda Kochar in corporate field, Kalpana Chawla in science, Kiran Bedi the first women IPS and many more IAS  and IPS officers are being recruited every year. In politics also we had the President of India  Mrs Pratibha Patil , the Prime minister of India Mrs. Indira Gandhi, Lok Sabha speaker and many chief ministers of the states and many MPs. Along with  them many more women are excelling in medical, engineering, dance ,drama, film lines, science and technology.

 Issues and Challenges-

Gender in equality has been displayed by many developing countries including India in education, employment and health. Women health concern receives a low priority resulting in bearing pain and discomfort in silence for long periods of time without seeking relief. The sex-ratio in India speaks the volume about the neglect. Not only poor even well to do parents tend to send more on the health care of boys than of girls.

India still rank 1 among the 12 countries that account for 2/3 under5 and maternal deaths in the world

Working women are often subject to sexual harassment. Most of the problems that beset working women are rooted in social perspective that men are bread winners and women are housekeepers. This typecast role model continues to put obstacles for the working women.

Women do not own any property right in their own names and do not get share of parental property. Due to weak enforcement of laws protecting those women continue to have little access on land and property.

Trafficking  is rampant among women from lower economic  background Domestic violence, acid attacks, dowry deaths, feticides, infanticide, emotional torture, child marriage , forced marriage and recently the interference of Khap Panchayats  and honour killing are the forms of violence which affect women physically, mentally and emotionally leading to insomnia, depression, injury, diseases, isolation. In many cases women tolerate violence simply because of the fear of consequences

CONCLUSION-

To end the violence education for girl child is must. For this   government should take stern stes to check wastage and stagnation problems in girls’ education. Campaign, change in attitudes of parents, awareness are essential steps. When a woman attains economic independence she naturally becomes the mistress of her own body and author of her own destiny. Despite constitutional provision of equal right, opportunities, political, social, educational and employment Indian women are not allowed to enjoy the rights and opportunities bestowed uon them. Women can be empowered through S.H.Gs., Micro financing, small scale enterprises. N.G.Os can play greater role in empowering the tribal women and women in farm and non-farm sectors.

We, the citizens, have got role to play if we want a better society and better environ ment to live in. We all should contribute towards the noble issue of women empower ment  Not enduring what is one effective   way to help this cause. Lodging   complaints against the domestic violence and ill practices affecting this fairer population. We should all join hands together and start with a small step only because

‘

‘’Small beginnings have great endings’’

References-

1. Yadav,C.P. (2000) ‘Empowerment of Women’  ISBN-8126106603,Publisher –Lakshmi Shikshan Sansthan.

2.     Uadhyay, H.C. (1991) ‘ Status of Women in India’,  Anmol  Publication  PP35-45

3.  Ganesamurthy, V.S.(2007) ‘ India: Economic Empowerment of Women’, New Century Publications- Business and Economics- ISBN- 8177081446, pp81-84

4.     Reddy, A.Ranga (2002) , ‘Empowerment of Women and Ecological Development’, Serials Publications, ISBN- 8186771018

Steps for construction of a Standardised Test

Steps for constructing Standardized Tests

Standardised tests are carefully constructed tests with a uniform procedure of scoring, administering and interpreting the test results. They consist of items of high quality. The items are pretested and selected on the basis of difficulty value, discrimination power, and relationship to clearly defined objectives in behavioural terms. Any person can administer the test as the directions for administering, time -limits and scores are given. These are norm-based tests. Norms are age, grade, sex etc. Reliability and validity of a test are established beforehand. A manual is supplied which explains purposes and uses of the test.

Steps for construction of a Standardised test

1.Planning the test.

2.Preparing the test.

3. Try out of the test.

4.  Reliability of the final test.

5.  Validity of the final test.

6. Preparation of norms for the final test.

7.Preparation of  manual and reproduction of test.

1. Planning – For standardized test a systematic and satisfactory planning is necessary. For this test constructor should carefully fix up the objectives of the test. He should determine the nature of the content or topics and item types like  long answer, short answer, very- short answer type and the types of instructions  like  knowledge, understanding, application, skill have  to be included. A Blue-print should be prepared. The method of sampling, a detailed arrangement for the preliminary administration and the final administration should be determined. A probable length of test, number of questions and time limit of test completion should also be determined. A clear cut instruction for test scoring and its administration procedure should also be determined.

2. Writing the items of the test-

Writing the items of the test is a creative art. It depends upon the item writer’s intuition, imagination, experience and practice.  Requirements of writing  the items are-

a. Complete   mastery over the subject-matter .In order to write correct items test constructer must be fully acquainted with all facts , fallacies, principles and misconceptions of the subject- matter.

b.                    Test writer must be aware of the ability and intelligence level of the persons for whom the test is meant.

c. The item writer must have a large vocabulary so that confusion in writing items may be avoided. The vocabulary used in the items should be simple enough to be understood by all.

d.                    After test items are written they must be arranged properly and assembled into a test. Items should be arranged from easy to difficult.

e.Test constructer should give clear cut instruction about the purpose of test, time limit, procedure of recording the answers.

f.   After writing down the items, they must be submitted to a group of experts of language, subject.

3.Preliminary Administration-

After the modification of items according to suggestions of experts the test is ready for experimental try –out to find out the major weaknesses and inadequacies of the item .It helps in finding out the ambiguous items, non –functioning distractors in multiple-choice questions, very difficult or very easy items. It also helps in determining the reasonable time limit, number of items to be included in the final test, to avoid overlapping and identifying any vagueness in the instructions.

Try-out is done in three stages-

1)          Preliminary try-out-

 It is done individually to improve and modify the language difficulty and ambiguity of items , it is done on around100 individuals and workability of items are observed so that item can be modified.

b)The proper try-out-

It is done on around 400 individuals.Its sample should be similar to those for whom the test is intended.the purpose of this try out is to select good items for the test and reject the poor items. This step includes two activities-

1.Item analysis – A test should neither be too easy nor too difficult, each item should discriminate validity among high and low achievers.The procedure used to judge the quality of an item is called item- analysis.it includes following steps-

.The test paper should be arranged from highest to lowest score.

.27%test papers from highest 27% from lowest end will be selected.

.Then the number of pupils in the upper and lower group whoselected each alternative for each test  item.

After item analysis only good items with appropriate difficulty level and satisfactory discriminating power are retained and form the final test. Desired numbers of items are selected according to blue –print and arranged in order of difficulty in the final draft. Time limit is set.

c) Final try-out –

Final try-out is done on large sample of individuals for estimating the reliability and validity of the test. This final try out indicates how effective the test really will be when it would be administered on the sample for which it really intended.

4. Reliability of the test-

When test is finally composed, the final test is again administered on a fresh sample in order to compute the reliability coefficient. This time also sample should not be less than 100.Reliability is calculated through Test-retest method, split-half method and the equivalent -form method. Reliability shows the consistency of test scores.

5. Validity of the final test-

Validity refers what the test measures and how well it measures. If a test measures a trait that it intends to measure well then the test can be said valid one.It is correlation of test with some outside independent criterion.

6. Norms of the final test-

Test constructor also prepares norms of the test. Norms are defined as average performance. They are prepared to meaningfully interpret the scores obtained on the test for. The obtained scores on test themselves convey no meaning regarding the ability or trait being measured. But when these are compared with norms, a meaningful inference can be immediately drawn. The norms may be age norms, grade norms etc. Similar norms cannot be used for all tests.

7. Preparation of manual and reproduction of the test-

Preparation of manual is the last step in test construction in which psychometric properties of the test norms and references are reported. It gives a clear indication regarding the procedures of the test administration, the scoring methods and time limits. It also includes instructions regarding the test.

 Standardized test assesses the rate of development of student's ability. It helps in diagnosing the learning difficulties of the students.It also helps the teacher to assess the effectiveness of his teaching and school instructional programme.

REFERENCES-

1.Singh ,A.K. (2011) : Tests, Measurements and Research Methods  in Behavioural Sciences , Bharati Bhawan pp 22-24
2. Panda,A. 'Statistics in Psychology and Education' pp 325-334

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Buddhism and Education

                                                                                                        

INTRODUCTION

Period of  Buddhism   is  from 600B.C. to 600 A.D. This was an Institutional organization and  based on  teachings of  Gautam  Buddha.Gautam.  Buddha was born in Kapilvastu in a royal family in 6^TH Century  B.C. His father’s name was Shudhodan and Mother’s name was Mahamaya. He was married to Yashodhara. The teachings of Buddha were mainly oral. Buddha’s Philosophy is described as’ Tripitaka’-

1)     Vinaypitaka- Rules of  Conduct

2)     Suttapitaka – Buddha’s Sermon

3)     Abhidhampitaka – Exposition of Philosophy

Aims of education in Buddhism was development of personality, physical and intellectual development, religious and spiritual development, character building, promotion of social efficiency and happiness and presentation and spread of culture.

Buddha believes in Law of Karma and said that the present existence of the individual is the effect of past karma. He believes in rebirth. Buddhism does not believe in God. The place of God is taken by Universal Doctrine of Karma which governs the universe in such a way that no fruit of action is lost. A man gets what he deserves on the basis of his past deeds.

Nirvana: It is the state of great pleasure and peace which can be attained through wisdom, goodness and knowledge.

DISCUSSION

Various tenets of Buddhist Education were-

Primary education

The age for starting primary education was 8 years.

Children have to study a children book named SIDDHIRASTU during first six months in which there were 16 chapters and 49 alphabets.

In the beginning, children imitate the pronunciation of teacher after that they start writing.

Teaching method was oral and cramming was emphasised.

The medium of instruction was Pali language.

System of Education

In Buddhist period, students have to stay in Sangha or Viharas.

Students have to present themselves to the teacher to ask for permission which is known as ‘Pabbja’ which means ‘to go out’.

The boys went out of their families and joined the monasteries.

The castes were allowed to get admission in the monasteries.

Pabbja Samskar

Minimum mandatory age for entering Viharas was 8 years.

The entrance was permitted to students after shaving their heads. After admission to Sangha, they could remain a monk, leaving their former caste, dress, character etc.

The monk asked them to take three vows – ‘I go in the shelter of Buddha. I seek the shelter of Dharma. I enter the shelter of Sangha.

No-one could get admission without the consent of his parents.

Patients with infectious diseases, government servants, slaves and soldiers were not allowed to be admitted to Sangha.

Rules for students

Admitted students were called ‘samner’. They had   to   follow   the following rules-

Not to kill any living being.

Not to accept anything given to him.

Live free from the impurity of character.

Not to tell a lie.

Not to use any intoxicating thing.

Not to take food in improper time.

Not to speak ill of anybody.

Not to take interest in music, dance, play show etc.

Not to use luxurious and scented things.

Not to accept the gifts of gold or silver.

The ten rules were essentially observed by the new monk. The teacher was called ‘upjasya’, took all the responsibilities of the students up to the age of 20 years when they become mature and capable for ‘upsampada’.

Upsampada

After completion of education of 12 years  at the age of 20 years  the Monk had to undergo the ritual ‘upsampada’ and then he become permanent member of ‘Sangha’ But only those Monks who had enough of spiritual knowledge were taken to Sangha.

Qualification and duties of a teacher

Bhikshus were teachers. They must have spent ten years as a monk and must have the purity of character, thought and generosity.

He must have high mental order so that he might teach his students the religion and nobleness.

There are two categories of teacher – Acharya and Upadhaya.

Acharya may admit number of people who would have to live with him at his own house for a minimum period of 12 years. He would not accept any fees.

Upadhaya admits the students and imparts instruction on payment of fees. His pupils were to study the part of Vedas for a temporary period.

Teachers were responsible for the proper education of students. He had to look after their needs affectionately.

Teachers were responsible for the mental and physical development of students.

He has to look after them at the time of sickness.

Teachers were very close, affectionate, good and pure.

Daily routine of disciples

Regular service of guru was essential.

In the morning, students would arrange for water, look after teacher’s meal.

He would cook the food, feed the teacher and clean the utensils.

He would go out for alms.

He has to keep the place tidy.

He could not go anywhere without the permission of the teacher.

School Administration

All the educational schemes were conducted by Sanghas situated in monasteries and viharas.

Educational institutions were based on the federal system.

Teacher and taught live together in viharas and monasteries

There was a democratic organisation of the educational institution.

The gates of Sangha were guarded by scholars called Dwar –pandits.

One learned bhikshu was appointed head of educational institutions.

There was no external interference in the administration of Sanghas.

Curriculum

Buddhist education was mainly religious and its aim was to attain Nirvana.

Buddhist philosophy believes that women, wealth and ornaments   are the real bindings so only those can achieve salvation who leads non-attached life i.e. monk- like.

The curriculum was religious which included teachings of Buddha and Dharma-Shastras and Sutta, Vinaya and Dhamma- Pitaka.

Vedas, Puranas, grammar, astrology, astronomy, vedangas,  Medicine, magic, Ayurveda, politics, sculpture, mathematics etc. were included in  the curriculum for general students.

The knowledge of Sanskrit was necessary for higher education.

The study of elephants, horses, archery, snake charming was also there.

Thus both  worldly and spiritual  aspect of education were included

Methods   of teaching

Method of teaching were based on oral discussions preaching, repetition, debates  were used as techniques of teaching and learning.

Seminars were also conducted to discuss major issues.

Mental and moral development was emphasised to attain Bodhisattva.

Although art of writing was developed but due to shortage of writing material the method of teaching was verbal.

The methods   of teaching    were   question–answer,          discussion, logical arguments, tours, conferences arranged on full moon day and first day of month, meditation in solitude.

Other method of teaching was evidences which were –theory, cause,  example contradiction, evidence, argument and induction.

The medium of instruction was common language.

The centres of education were Takshshila, Nalanda  and  Kashi.   

Women education

Previously women were not allowed to get education.

But after the request of his disciple Anand, Buddha allowed women to enter the Sangha.

Bhikshus are not permitted to give education to women in alone.

Women were considered inferior to men.

General women were not allowed to get education

Vocational education

Bhikshus were given various types of education in handicrafts weaving.  Stitching  of clothes etc.

Agriculture, trade, commerce, animal-husbandary were also taught.

Education in architecture, sculpture and painting helped in construction of beautiful monasteries

Education of medical science is the gift of Buddhist period Charak , Dhanvantari were the great Ayurvedacharya.

Conclusion-

The origin of Buddhism was in the reaction of Upnishadic philosophy and the ritual activities. In it Guru’s home was replaced by monastery, the Vedas are replaced by Buddhist scriptures. But contribution of Buddhism to education is distinct. It enlarged opportunities for all castes. There was a high degree of literacy. Tuition, boarding and lodging was free in all these schools though students had to beg alms in order to support themselves and monks. Buddhism started universal elementary education. Buddhist centres of education attracted students from far and near and raised the international status of India. Buddhism flourished popular education which was widely accepted and more popular.

To quote Gunnar Myrdal-

‘Scholastic debates were encouraged. Such learned assemblies were a novel feature of Buddhist higher education.’

According to Dr. Altekar-

‘The relations between novice and his teacher were filial in character, they were united together by mutual reverence, confidence and affection.’

Buddhism made provision of vocational education, education of worldly subjects, encouraged local languages, democratized education .The most charming contribution of Buddhism to Indian life is in domain of architecture, sculpture and painting. No doubt Buddhism has contributed to Indian culture in many ways; it had its bad effects also. It has encouraged young generation to adopt monastic lives. The contemporary generations were led to a life of renunciation which developed in them an attitude of indifference and irresponsibility towards the society which led to deterioration of the society. Monastic life was unnatural for young boys and girls as it breeds corruption in the society. The cult of non- violence preached by Buddha inculcated the spirit of pacifism in Indian society which made it weak in self assertion and also militarily.

References –

1. Safaya,Srivastava & Singh, ‘Development of  Education in Emerging India& Its Current Problems’ (2011), pp 29-49

2. Pathak ,P.D.  ‘Bhartiya Shiksha aur Uski  Samasyaen’(2012), pp 22-36

3. Altekar, A.S.:op cit.61-62

4. Myrdal Gunnar, ’Asian Drama’, Vol III p.1629