Steps for construction of a Standardised Test

Steps for constructing Standardized Tests

Standardised tests are carefully constructed tests with a uniform procedure of scoring, administering and interpreting the test results. They consist of items of high quality. The items are pretested and selected on the basis of difficulty value, discrimination power, and relationship to clearly defined objectives in behavioural terms. Any person can administer the test as the directions for administering, time -limits and scores are given. These are norm-based tests. Norms are age, grade, sex etc. Reliability and validity of a test are established beforehand. A manual is supplied which explains purposes and uses of the test.

Steps for construction of a Standardised test

1.Planning the test.

2.Preparing the test.

3. Try out of the test.

4.  Reliability of the final test.

5.  Validity of the final test.

6. Preparation of norms for the final test.

7.Preparation of  manual and reproduction of test.

1. Planning – For standardized test a systematic and satisfactory planning is necessary. For this test constructor should carefully fix up the objectives of the test. He should determine the nature of the content or topics and item types like  long answer, short answer, very- short answer type and the types of instructions  like  knowledge, understanding, application, skill have  to be included. A Blue-print should be prepared. The method of sampling, a detailed arrangement for the preliminary administration and the final administration should be determined. A probable length of test, number of questions and time limit of test completion should also be determined. A clear cut instruction for test scoring and its administration procedure should also be determined.

2. Writing the items of the test-

Writing the items of the test is a creative art. It depends upon the item writer’s intuition, imagination, experience and practice.  Requirements of writing  the items are-

a. Complete   mastery over the subject-matter .In order to write correct items test constructer must be fully acquainted with all facts , fallacies, principles and misconceptions of the subject- matter.

b.                    Test writer must be aware of the ability and intelligence level of the persons for whom the test is meant.

c. The item writer must have a large vocabulary so that confusion in writing items may be avoided. The vocabulary used in the items should be simple enough to be understood by all.

d.                    After test items are written they must be arranged properly and assembled into a test. Items should be arranged from easy to difficult.

e.Test constructer should give clear cut instruction about the purpose of test, time limit, procedure of recording the answers.

f.   After writing down the items, they must be submitted to a group of experts of language, subject.

3.Preliminary Administration-

After the modification of items according to suggestions of experts the test is ready for experimental try –out to find out the major weaknesses and inadequacies of the item .It helps in finding out the ambiguous items, non –functioning distractors in multiple-choice questions, very difficult or very easy items. It also helps in determining the reasonable time limit, number of items to be included in the final test, to avoid overlapping and identifying any vagueness in the instructions.

Try-out is done in three stages-

1)          Preliminary try-out-

 It is done individually to improve and modify the language difficulty and ambiguity of items , it is done on around100 individuals and workability of items are observed so that item can be modified.

b)The proper try-out-

It is done on around 400 individuals.Its sample should be similar to those for whom the test is intended.the purpose of this try out is to select good items for the test and reject the poor items. This step includes two activities-

1.Item analysis – A test should neither be too easy nor too difficult, each item should discriminate validity among high and low achievers.The procedure used to judge the quality of an item is called item- analysis.it includes following steps-

.The test paper should be arranged from highest to lowest score.

.27%test papers from highest 27% from lowest end will be selected.

.Then the number of pupils in the upper and lower group whoselected each alternative for each test  item.

After item analysis only good items with appropriate difficulty level and satisfactory discriminating power are retained and form the final test. Desired numbers of items are selected according to blue –print and arranged in order of difficulty in the final draft. Time limit is set.

c) Final try-out –

Final try-out is done on large sample of individuals for estimating the reliability and validity of the test. This final try out indicates how effective the test really will be when it would be administered on the sample for which it really intended.

4. Reliability of the test-

When test is finally composed, the final test is again administered on a fresh sample in order to compute the reliability coefficient. This time also sample should not be less than 100.Reliability is calculated through Test-retest method, split-half method and the equivalent -form method. Reliability shows the consistency of test scores.

5. Validity of the final test-

Validity refers what the test measures and how well it measures. If a test measures a trait that it intends to measure well then the test can be said valid one.It is correlation of test with some outside independent criterion.

6. Norms of the final test-

Test constructor also prepares norms of the test. Norms are defined as average performance. They are prepared to meaningfully interpret the scores obtained on the test for. The obtained scores on test themselves convey no meaning regarding the ability or trait being measured. But when these are compared with norms, a meaningful inference can be immediately drawn. The norms may be age norms, grade norms etc. Similar norms cannot be used for all tests.

7. Preparation of manual and reproduction of the test-

Preparation of manual is the last step in test construction in which psychometric properties of the test norms and references are reported. It gives a clear indication regarding the procedures of the test administration, the scoring methods and time limits. It also includes instructions regarding the test.

 Standardized test assesses the rate of development of student's ability. It helps in diagnosing the learning difficulties of the students.It also helps the teacher to assess the effectiveness of his teaching and school instructional programme.

REFERENCES-

1.Singh ,A.K. (2011) : Tests, Measurements and Research Methods  in Behavioural Sciences , Bharati Bhawan pp 22-24
2. Panda,A. 'Statistics in Psychology and Education' pp 325-334

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Buddhism and Education

                                                                                                        

INTRODUCTION

Period of  Buddhism   is  from 600B.C. to 600 A.D. This was an Institutional organization and  based on  teachings of  Gautam  Buddha.Gautam.  Buddha was born in Kapilvastu in a royal family in 6^TH Century  B.C. His father’s name was Shudhodan and Mother’s name was Mahamaya. He was married to Yashodhara. The teachings of Buddha were mainly oral. Buddha’s Philosophy is described as’ Tripitaka’-

1)     Vinaypitaka- Rules of  Conduct

2)     Suttapitaka – Buddha’s Sermon

3)     Abhidhampitaka – Exposition of Philosophy

Aims of education in Buddhism was development of personality, physical and intellectual development, religious and spiritual development, character building, promotion of social efficiency and happiness and presentation and spread of culture.

Buddha believes in Law of Karma and said that the present existence of the individual is the effect of past karma. He believes in rebirth. Buddhism does not believe in God. The place of God is taken by Universal Doctrine of Karma which governs the universe in such a way that no fruit of action is lost. A man gets what he deserves on the basis of his past deeds.

Nirvana: It is the state of great pleasure and peace which can be attained through wisdom, goodness and knowledge.

DISCUSSION

Various tenets of Buddhist Education were-

Primary education

The age for starting primary education was 8 years.

Children have to study a children book named SIDDHIRASTU during first six months in which there were 16 chapters and 49 alphabets.

In the beginning, children imitate the pronunciation of teacher after that they start writing.

Teaching method was oral and cramming was emphasised.

The medium of instruction was Pali language.

System of Education

In Buddhist period, students have to stay in Sangha or Viharas.

Students have to present themselves to the teacher to ask for permission which is known as ‘Pabbja’ which means ‘to go out’.

The boys went out of their families and joined the monasteries.

The castes were allowed to get admission in the monasteries.

Pabbja Samskar

Minimum mandatory age for entering Viharas was 8 years.

The entrance was permitted to students after shaving their heads. After admission to Sangha, they could remain a monk, leaving their former caste, dress, character etc.

The monk asked them to take three vows – ‘I go in the shelter of Buddha. I seek the shelter of Dharma. I enter the shelter of Sangha.

No-one could get admission without the consent of his parents.

Patients with infectious diseases, government servants, slaves and soldiers were not allowed to be admitted to Sangha.

Rules for students

Admitted students were called ‘samner’. They had   to   follow   the following rules-

Not to kill any living being.

Not to accept anything given to him.

Live free from the impurity of character.

Not to tell a lie.

Not to use any intoxicating thing.

Not to take food in improper time.

Not to speak ill of anybody.

Not to take interest in music, dance, play show etc.

Not to use luxurious and scented things.

Not to accept the gifts of gold or silver.

The ten rules were essentially observed by the new monk. The teacher was called ‘upjasya’, took all the responsibilities of the students up to the age of 20 years when they become mature and capable for ‘upsampada’.

Upsampada

After completion of education of 12 years  at the age of 20 years  the Monk had to undergo the ritual ‘upsampada’ and then he become permanent member of ‘Sangha’ But only those Monks who had enough of spiritual knowledge were taken to Sangha.

Qualification and duties of a teacher

Bhikshus were teachers. They must have spent ten years as a monk and must have the purity of character, thought and generosity.

He must have high mental order so that he might teach his students the religion and nobleness.

There are two categories of teacher – Acharya and Upadhaya.

Acharya may admit number of people who would have to live with him at his own house for a minimum period of 12 years. He would not accept any fees.

Upadhaya admits the students and imparts instruction on payment of fees. His pupils were to study the part of Vedas for a temporary period.

Teachers were responsible for the proper education of students. He had to look after their needs affectionately.

Teachers were responsible for the mental and physical development of students.

He has to look after them at the time of sickness.

Teachers were very close, affectionate, good and pure.

Daily routine of disciples

Regular service of guru was essential.

In the morning, students would arrange for water, look after teacher’s meal.

He would cook the food, feed the teacher and clean the utensils.

He would go out for alms.

He has to keep the place tidy.

He could not go anywhere without the permission of the teacher.

School Administration

All the educational schemes were conducted by Sanghas situated in monasteries and viharas.

Educational institutions were based on the federal system.

Teacher and taught live together in viharas and monasteries

There was a democratic organisation of the educational institution.

The gates of Sangha were guarded by scholars called Dwar –pandits.

One learned bhikshu was appointed head of educational institutions.

There was no external interference in the administration of Sanghas.

Curriculum

Buddhist education was mainly religious and its aim was to attain Nirvana.

Buddhist philosophy believes that women, wealth and ornaments   are the real bindings so only those can achieve salvation who leads non-attached life i.e. monk- like.

The curriculum was religious which included teachings of Buddha and Dharma-Shastras and Sutta, Vinaya and Dhamma- Pitaka.

Vedas, Puranas, grammar, astrology, astronomy, vedangas,  Medicine, magic, Ayurveda, politics, sculpture, mathematics etc. were included in  the curriculum for general students.

The knowledge of Sanskrit was necessary for higher education.

The study of elephants, horses, archery, snake charming was also there.

Thus both  worldly and spiritual  aspect of education were included

Methods   of teaching

Method of teaching were based on oral discussions preaching, repetition, debates  were used as techniques of teaching and learning.

Seminars were also conducted to discuss major issues.

Mental and moral development was emphasised to attain Bodhisattva.

Although art of writing was developed but due to shortage of writing material the method of teaching was verbal.

The methods   of teaching    were   question–answer,          discussion, logical arguments, tours, conferences arranged on full moon day and first day of month, meditation in solitude.

Other method of teaching was evidences which were –theory, cause,  example contradiction, evidence, argument and induction.

The medium of instruction was common language.

The centres of education were Takshshila, Nalanda  and  Kashi.   

Women education

Previously women were not allowed to get education.

But after the request of his disciple Anand, Buddha allowed women to enter the Sangha.

Bhikshus are not permitted to give education to women in alone.

Women were considered inferior to men.

General women were not allowed to get education

Vocational education

Bhikshus were given various types of education in handicrafts weaving.  Stitching  of clothes etc.

Agriculture, trade, commerce, animal-husbandary were also taught.

Education in architecture, sculpture and painting helped in construction of beautiful monasteries

Education of medical science is the gift of Buddhist period Charak , Dhanvantari were the great Ayurvedacharya.

Conclusion-

The origin of Buddhism was in the reaction of Upnishadic philosophy and the ritual activities. In it Guru’s home was replaced by monastery, the Vedas are replaced by Buddhist scriptures. But contribution of Buddhism to education is distinct. It enlarged opportunities for all castes. There was a high degree of literacy. Tuition, boarding and lodging was free in all these schools though students had to beg alms in order to support themselves and monks. Buddhism started universal elementary education. Buddhist centres of education attracted students from far and near and raised the international status of India. Buddhism flourished popular education which was widely accepted and more popular.

To quote Gunnar Myrdal-

‘Scholastic debates were encouraged. Such learned assemblies were a novel feature of Buddhist higher education.’

According to Dr. Altekar-

‘The relations between novice and his teacher were filial in character, they were united together by mutual reverence, confidence and affection.’

Buddhism made provision of vocational education, education of worldly subjects, encouraged local languages, democratized education .The most charming contribution of Buddhism to Indian life is in domain of architecture, sculpture and painting. No doubt Buddhism has contributed to Indian culture in many ways; it had its bad effects also. It has encouraged young generation to adopt monastic lives. The contemporary generations were led to a life of renunciation which developed in them an attitude of indifference and irresponsibility towards the society which led to deterioration of the society. Monastic life was unnatural for young boys and girls as it breeds corruption in the society. The cult of non- violence preached by Buddha inculcated the spirit of pacifism in Indian society which made it weak in self assertion and also militarily.

References –

1. Safaya,Srivastava & Singh, ‘Development of  Education in Emerging India& Its Current Problems’ (2011), pp 29-49

2. Pathak ,P.D.  ‘Bhartiya Shiksha aur Uski  Samasyaen’(2012), pp 22-36

3. Altekar, A.S.:op cit.61-62

4. Myrdal Gunnar, ’Asian Drama’, Vol III p.1629